Carnivorous combines carnis, flesh, and voro, to devour. A carnivorous animal, or carnivore, is one whose main diet is meat.
Voro, to devour, is the origin of other words referring to eating habits:
1.Herbivorous – subsisting on grains, grasses, and other vegetation, as do cows, deer, horses, etc. The animal is a herbivore. Derivation: Latin herba, herb, plus voro, to devour.
2.Omnivorous – eating everything: meat, grains, grasses, fish, insects, and anything else digestible. The only species so indiscriminate in their diet are humans and rats, plus, of course, some cats and dogs that live with people (in contrast to felines and canines – lions, tigers, bobcats, wolves, etc. – that are not domesticated). Omnivorous (combining Latin omnis, all, with voro, plus the adjective suffix -ous) refers not only to food. An omnivorous reader reads everything in great quantities (that is, devours all kinds of reading matter).
3.Voracious – devouring; hence, greedy or gluttonous; may refer either to food or to any other habits. One may be a voracious eater, voracious reader, voracious in one’s pursuit of money, pleasure, etc. Think of the two noun forms of loquacious.
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Some of these words change their ending to -ves in the plural, but some end simply in -s. A few allow a choice. Here are some examples:
X. ending -s: beliefs, carafes, chiefs, cliffs, cuffs, handkerchiefs, oafs, proofs, roofs, safes.
X. changing to -ves: calves, elves, halves, knives, leaves, loaves, scarves, shelves, wives, wolves.
X. taking either plural: dwarfs/dwarves, hoofs/hooves, wharves.
Note one life, two lives – but two paintings of bowls of fruit are two still lifes.
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Cacophony is itself a harsh-sounding word – and is the only one that exactly describes the unmusical, grating, ear-offending noises you are likely to hear in man-made surrounding: the underground trains thundering through their tunnels (they are also eye-offending, for which we might coin the term cacopsis, noun, and cacoptic, adjective), the traffic bedlam of rush hours in a big city, a steel mill, a car factory, a blast furnace, etc. Adjective: cacophonous.
These words are built on the Greek roots kakos, bad, harsh, or ugly, and phone, sound.
Phone, sound, is found also in:
1.telephone – etymologically, ‘sound from afar’.
2.euphony – pleasant sound.
3.phonograph – etymologically, ‘writer of sound’.
4.saxophone – a musical instrument (hence sound) invented by Adolphe Sax.
5.xylophone – a musical instrument; etymologically, ‘sounds through wood’ (Greek xylon, wood).
6.phonetics – the science of the sounds of language; the adjective is phonetic, the expert a phonetician.
7.phonics – the science of sound; also the method of teaching reading by practising the sounds of letters and syllables.
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Generally, a subject consisting of a singular noun plus an of-phrase takes a singular verb: A flock of sheep was seen in the distance. But there are some exceptions:
A vast quantity of fakes were released onto the market.
The ‘notional’ meaning here (see the chart, Notional agreement, below) is clearly ‘many fakes’ – hence the plural verb form.
Sometimes the choice of verb can affect the meaning. A vast quantity of fakes was released onto the market suggests that they all came from one source; using were avoids this suggestion.
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If you watch a furious athletic event, and you get tired, though the athletes expend all the energy – that’s vicarious fatigue.
If your friend goes on a bender, and as you watch him adsorb one drink after another, you begin to feel giddy and stimulated, that’s vicarious intoxication.
If you watch a mother in a film or play suffer horribly at the death of her child, and you go through the same agony, that’s vicarious torment.
You can experience an emotion, then, in two ways: firsthand, through actual participation: or vicariously, by becoming empathetically involved in another person’s feelings.
Some people, for example, lead essentially dull and colourless lives. Through their children, through reading or attending the theatre, however, they can experience all the emotions felt by others whose lives move along at a swift, exciting pace. These people live at second hand; they live vicariously.
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So much, then, for the individual parts of speech. In isolation they mean little. Only when words form part of a phrase or sentence do they begin to serve a proper communicative purpose.
The best way to thing of a sentence is as a word or string of words that makes sense on its own – that is, as a complete grammatical unit. So Hello, and Well I never!, and Easy come, easy go, and Bother it! are sentences. So too is I can, in response to the question Who can speak French? However, these are hardly typical sentences.
A ‘normal’ sentence consists of one or more clauses. These are like mini-sentences, mostly with a main verb plus all the other constituents attached to it.
Take this sentence:
When I’d got back from work and was having a shower, my wife said that she’d seen just the curtains that we’d been looking for.
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Centuries ago, in ancient Greece, the philosopher Zeno lectured on a topic that still piques the human mind, to wit: ‘How to Live a Happy Life’. Zeno would stand on a porch (the Greek word for which is stoa) and hold forth somewhat as follows: People should free themselves from intense emotion, be unmoved by both joy and sorrow, and submit without complaint to unavoidable necessity.
Today, psychologists suggest pretty much the exact opposite – let your emotions flow freely, express your love or animosity, don’t bottle up your feelings. But in the fourth century B.C.,when Zeno was expounding his credo, his philosophy of control of the passions fell on receptive ears. His followers were called Stoics, after the stoa, or porch, from which the master lectured.
If we call people stoical, we mean that they bear their pain or sorrow without complaint, they meet adversity with unflinching fortitude. This sounds very noble, you will admit – actually, according to modern psychological belief, it is healthier not to be so stoical. Stoicism may be an admirable virtue (mainly because we do not then have to listen to the stoic’s troubles), but it can be overdone.
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Determiners are small words used before nouns to tell you which one, or how many, or whose, and so on. For example: the man; a school girl; all people; every chance; no peace; some buttons; any information; both tigers; your friends; their money. What are now known as determiners were formerly sometimes (confusingly) included among adjectives since they turn up in front of nouns. But that is almost all they have in common with adjectives.
Many determiners look like pronouns. The word that in That idea’s daft is a determiner because it comes before the noun, but in That’s daft it is a pronoun because it is on its own as the subject of the sentence.
The two commonest determiners the and a/an are called ‘articles’. The is the definite article; it refers to a defined thing or person Bring me the chair (the one definite or specific or only chair). A/an is the indefinite article; the object or person it refers to is not defined – Bring me a chair (any chair will do).
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We can hardly close our book on the words suggested by ingenuous without looking at the other side of the coin. If ingenuous means frank, open, then disingenuous should mean not frank or open. But disingenuous people are far more than simply not ingenuous. They are crafty, cunning, dishonest, artful, insineere, untrustworthy – and they are all of these while making a pretence of being simple, frank, and aboveboard. You are thinking of a wolf in sheep’s clothing? It’s a good analogy.
Similarly, a remark may be disingenuous, as may also a statement, an attitude, a confession etc.
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Adjectives go with or ‘qualify’ or ‘modify’ nouns, and sometimes pronouns. They are often used to describe the thing that the noun refers to.
Adjectives tend to turn up in one of two place:
X. before nouns in noun phrases, as in elegant handwriting, lumpy gravy, and the very idea. This is the ‘attributive’ position.
X. after ‘being’ verbs, as in Clive’s stupid, you became happy, and it sounds unlikely. This is called the ‘predicative’ position. Here the adjective refers back to the subject – stupid describes Clive, happy describes you, unlikely describes it.
Most adjectives are ‘gradable’ – they can be ‘more’ or ‘less’. You can, for instance, put very and similar words in front of many of them: very funny, fairly interesting. (Some adjectives are not really gradable – ?? more unique – or not gradable at all: X more atomic.
Gradable adjectives have three levels of comparison: the basic adjective, the comparative, and the superlative. So, in quiet, quieter, quietest or sympathetic, more sympathetic, most sympathetic, the -er or more form is the comparative, and the -est or most form is the superlative. The comparative is used to compare two things: Wendy’s bigger than her sister. The superlative is used for three or more – Wendy’s the biggest girl in the school.
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